Department of Political Science

University of Helsinki

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Turo Virtanen 25.5.1999

ADDITIONAL RESEARCH PROJECTS 1994-98

As requested, the projects of professors are described in the document 'The Main Research Projects 1994-98'. Other research projects of the research active staff are described in the following (in the order of the alphabet).

Berndtson, Erkki

Senior Lecturer, Lic.Pol.Sc.

(1) Development of Political Science

This is a continuing project under the auspices of the International Committee for the Study of the Development of Political Science (ICSDPS), which is an autonomous subcommittee of the International Political Science Association Research Committee on "The Study of the Discipline of Political Science". The ICSDPS was founded in 1985 and at the moment it has seven members: David Easton (Chair, USA), John G. Gunnell (USA), John Trent (Canada), Luigi Graziano (Italy), Adele Jinadu (Nigeria), Hans Kastendiek (Germany) and Erkki Berndtson (Finland). The Committee has organized several conferences of its own (Cortona 1987, Barcelona 1990, Mexico City 1994) and has also regularly organized panels at the IPSA World Congresses (Buenos Aires 1991, Berlin 1994, Seoul 1997) with the IPSA Research Committee proper. The ICSDPS has published two books: David Easton, John G. Gunnell and Luigi Graziano (eds.), The Development of Political Science. A Comparative Survey, Routledge, London 1991 and David Easton, John G. Gunnell and Michael B. Stein (eds.), Regime and Discipline. Democracy and the Development of Political Science, The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 1995.

I have been a member of the Committee from its beginning, presenting papers in its conferences (Cortona, Barcelona, Seoul) and contributing an article (The Development of Political Science: Methodological Problems of Comparative Research) for the first book. Recently published articles (1994-1998) relevant for the project include:

- Valtiot hajoavat ja yhdentyvät - mitä tapahtuu vertailevalle politiikan tutkimukselle? (With an English abstract: Disintegrating and Integrating States - What Will Happen to Comparative Politics?). Politiikka 2/1994, pp. 96-108.

- Foundations, Social Scientists, and Eastern Europe (with Joan Roelofs), in Stephen Brooks and Alain-G. Gagnon (eds.), The Political Influence of Ideas. Policy Communities and the Social Sciences. Praeger, Westport, Connecticut 1994, pp. 163-185.

- Shuken kara Ken-i to Eikyoryoku e - Minshushugi Riron ni okeru Kenryoku no Keifugaku e Mukete, Ritsumeikan Hougaku 2/1996, pp. 206-232.

(2) Political Power

This is also an IPSA Research Committee (on "Political Power") project. I have been the secretary of the Research Committee since 1994 and the Committee has focused much of its work on "power and globalization" during this time. Research Committee has had two conferences of its own (Helsinki 1995 and Nijmegen 1998) and a panel at the Seoul IPSA World Congress (1997) on the topic. A book, Power in the Contemporary World, has been under construction out of the last conference (Nijmegen) and is under review for SAGE. A core group of the Research Committee include Henri J. Goverde (Chair of the RC, Nijmegen), Stewart R. Clegg (Australia), Mark Haugaard (Ireland), Howard H. Lentner (USA) and Philip G. Cerny (UK).

Holli, Anne Maria

Assistant, Lic.Pol.Sc.

(1)Overview State of the Art Study of Research on Women in Political, Economic and Social Decision-making in Europe. National raporter of the EU- project " (Equal Opportunities Bureau of DGV). Leadership of the project: Joni Lovenduski (University of Southampton). 1997.

(2)Likestilte demokratier? Kjönn og politikk I Norden, 1995-1999. Book project, co-author of the chapter III: "Den institusjonaliserte likestilling." Leader of the project: prof. Sirkka Sinkkonen, Finland/Christina Bergqvist, Sweden.

(3) Women's Policy Offices, Representation and Deficient Democracies: A Cross-National Project 1995-2002. Amy Mazur and Dorothy McBride Stetson, US, and group of coordinators from all the participating countries. Holli is the coordinator for the Finnish sub-project. The focus is on the role of the women's policy machineries in making modern post-industrialist democracies more democratic, by increasing women's direct and indirect representation in the politico-administrative arena. 17 case studies are carried out in different countries in five policy areas. The goal is to seek explanations for cross-national similarities and differences in the effectiveness of women's policy agencies. Holli is responsible for two policy areas within the Finnish project, prostitution policy and job training policy. These will result in two articles.

(4) Equality in the Nordic countries between rhetorics and practice - a study of the transformations of public and private conceptualisations of modern equality policy 1999-2000. Other members of the project group: Eva Magnusson, University of Oslo, Malin Rönnblom, University of Umeå. Reference Group: Maud Eduards, University of Stockholm, Beatrice Halsaa, University of Oslo, Harriet Silius, Åbo Akademi, Dorte Marie Söndergaard, Roskilde University. The goal is to study different understandings and conceptualisations of gender equality in the Nordic countries, by studying both public discourse on the subject and personal views and action of different actors of equality policy. The comparative aspect of the study will concentrate on assessing the similarities and differences between the five Nordic countries. The project is now in the process of applying for funding from the Nordic Council of Ministers for planning the project in detail.

(5) Femmes, exclusion et democratie locale 1999-2000. Coordinator: Jacqueline Heinen, France. The project is in the process of applying resources from the EU. The goal is to study women's participation in local politics in several European countries. The study intends to locate the barriers to women's participation on local level, as well as assess women's influence on local politics in different countries and the reasons that lie behind. Holli is a member of the Finnish research group of the project.

Main publications related to the projects

- Holli, Anne Maria: "Mara vai Lillan? Presidenttiehdokkaiden evaluointi sanomalehtien mielipidekirjoituksissa." ("Mara or Lillan? The Evaluation of Presidential Candidates in the Letters-to-the Editors in the Press.") - In Lammi-Taskula, Johanna (ed.): Sukupuoli, media ja presidentinvaalit. Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriö, tasa-arvojulkaisuja 1/1994, Helsinki 1994, 31-56.

- Holli, Anne Maria: "Tasa-arvosta ja Troijan hevosista. Feministinen käsitekritiikki ja suomalaisen tasa-arvopolitiikan käytännöt." ("On Equality and Trojan Horses. The Challenges of the Finnish Experience to Feminist Theory.") - Naistutkimus - Kvinnoforskning 3/1995, 14-33.

- Holli, Anne Maria: "Check-mating the State? Argumentation Strategies in Finnish Equality Policies." - NORA 2/1996, 83-96.

- Holli, Anne Maria: "On Equality and Trojan Horses. The Challenges of the Finnish Experience to Feminist Theory." European Journal of Women's Studies, 2/1997, 133-164.

- Holli, Anne Maria: "Debatten om jämställdhet inom försvaret - en finländsk fallstudie." ("The Debate on Gender Equality in the Army - A Finnish Case Study." - In Bergqvist, Christina et al. (eds.): Likestilte demokratier? Kjönn og politikk i Norden. Universitetsforlaget, Oslo 1999, 214-228.

- Holli, Anne Maria: State of the Art Study of Research on Women in Political, Economic and Social Decision-Making: Finland. (to be published belatedly in the series of the University of Aarhus in 1999)

- Holli, Anne Maria: "Debatten om jämställdhet inom försvaret - en finländsk fallstudie." In Bergqvist, Christina et al. (eds.): Likestilte demokratier? Kjönn og politikk I Norden. Universitetsforlaget - Nordisk Ministerråd, Oslo 1999, 214-228.

Kauppi, Niilo

Senior Research Fellow (Academy of Finland), PhD

Visiting Scholar, Centre d'études des mouvements sociaux, Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, Paris (Spring 1999)

(1) French Intellectual Capital, 1993-1996

Junior Research Fellow, Academy of Finland. The aim of this study was to explore a type of social resource, intellectual capital, in the French intellectual field.

(2) European Political Integration: The Case of France, 1996-1997

Researcher, Academy of Finland. The purpose was to study the effects of European integration on the French political arena and the connections between national political arenas. Acting assistant at the department of political science 1997-1998.

(3) The French Political Field and the European Polity, 1998-2001

The aim of this study is to explore the complex relationships between French politics and the forming European polity.

Main publications related to the projects

- "The Politics of Embodiment in Pierre Bourdieu's Theory", forthcoming 1999, Peter Lang Publishers. 150pp.

- "Power or Subjection? French Women Politicians in the European Parliament,"The European Journal of Women's Studies, forthcoming 1999.

- "The Bourdieu Affair" (in Finnish). Introduction to Pierre Bourdieu Vastatulia/televisiosta, Otava: Helsinki, forthcoming 1999.

- (With Ilpo Koskinen and Juri Mykkänen) "Professional Dominance? Jurists and Jurist Power in Finland" (in Finnish). Politiikka 2/1997, pp. 108-131.

- "Toward the Post-Absolutist State? EU-Research as a Challenge to Political Science" (in Finnish). Politiikka 1/1997, pp. 60-63.

- French Intellectual Nobility: Institutional and Symbolic Transformations in the Post-Sartrian Era. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996. 204 pp.

- "European Union Institutions and French Political Careers." Scandinavian Political Studies 19:1/ 1996, pp. 1-24.

Keränen, Marja

Senior research fellow (Academy of Finland), PhD

Restructuring Political Spaces in Europe

This project was funded by the Finnish Academy between 1995 and 1998 (FIM 515.700). The project consisted of two parts: Firstly, it aimed at constructing a viable methodological basis for comparative 'cultural' studies on "Europe". Secondly, building on the work on method, it studied formation processes of political identities in the context of European integration.

Firstly, the new booming interest in comparative studies was placed in the context of European integration. Paradoxically, the very process of integration calls into question many of the pregiven assumptions of comparative studies, among them the nations-state as a self-given "natural" unit of analysis. In the situation, research starting from predefined categorizations is at risk of producing totally irrelevant results. The project suggested, that categories of research are better seen, not as predetermined points of departure, but as results of research in themselves. Integration raises a question of methods. Consequently, even comparative approaches to studying different social systems or political cultures have to rethink their conventional methods. The project has pointed out, that the abstracted research repertoire of comparisons needs to integrate ethnographic approaches. An ethnographic, "anthropological" register is applied on areas of traditional comparative studies. It is suggested, that this approach will enrich and bring better quality to comparisons.

Secondly, the project dealt with political identities, as formed in historically and spatially specific contexts of construction, as constructed rather that given in terms of predetermined units of analysis. Constructions of Finnishness were studied at the crossing point of Finland joining the EU, and as a border identity between the East and the West. The nation's sovereignty was studied by analysing the rhetoric of separating 'the economy' and 'politics' in the situation where Finland was joining the EMU. Furthermore, the project of Europeanness and European identities is discussed as a possible project of actual cultural homogenization.

The project was related to post-graduate education in the universities of Helsinki, Jyväskylä, and Tampere. Cooperation with other projects: The project was built upon previous work in Britain (University of Manchester; Simon research fellowship in 1993-1994, and the LSE (EU/TMR project on Social Cohesion in Spring 1995), and the cooperation with the LSE-project has continued during this time.

Main publications related to the project

- 'Universalism, contextualism and reflexivity', Glasgow Caledonian University, Caledonian Papers in Social Sciences, Theoretical Papers No 4, 1995.

- 'The changing boundaries of the public and the private.' 1995. in Eräsaari, L. & Julkunen, R. & Silius, H. (Eds.) Women on the Border of the Public and the Private. Tampere; Vastapaino 29-48.

- 'Football as a field of power, A Finnish gaze', 1995. in Veijola, S. &Bale, John & Sironen, E. (Eds.), Strangers in Sport, Reading Classics of Social Thought. Department of Social Policy, University of Jyväskylä Working Papers no 91, pp. 51-66.

- 'Reconstructing Social Spaces: The Rhetoric of the Public/Private Split.' NORA (Nordic Journal of Women's Studies) 1/1996

- 'Sciences as Rhetoric' (Tieteet retoriikkana) in Summa, Hilkka & Palonen, Kari (Eds.) Mere Rhetoric, (Pelkkää retoriikkaa). Tampere; Vastapaino 1996.

- 'Mapping Women - Mapping the Self, Representations of Women in Participation Studies', in Carver, T. & Hyvärinen, M. (Eds.) Interpreting the Political - New Methodologies. London; Routledge 1997.

- 'Social Problems in Different Contexts'. The London School of Economics, Gender Institute Discussion Paper Series Issue 4 - June 1997.

- Grammar of the nation-state; Perspectives on Narrating the Story of the Nation'; including 'Introduction: Why Do we study Finland' (Miksi tutkimme Suomea), and 'Nation-state as part of Nature, Methodological Remarks (Suomi tutkimuksen luontona, Metodologisia huomautuksia).

- 'The English as Others'. Forthcoming in Janusz Mucha (Ed.)... East European Monographs/Columbia University Press (in print, 1999).

- 'Citizenship, Universal-Speak and Local-Speak', Forthcoming in Protosociology (thematic volume "On a Sociology of Borderlines. Studies in the Time of Globalization", Summer 1999.

- Methods for Political Science (forthcoming Autumn 1999), including 'Introduction' and 'Comparative Methods and Ethnography'. By Iisa Räsänen: '"Lastuna virrassa vai omaa purtta ohjaten", Itsenäisyyteen liittyvät valtamerkitykset EU:n vastaisina argumentteina suomalaisessa integraationkeskustelussa'. Licentiate thesis, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Social Sciences and philosophy. Publication 71, 1997.

Kiviniemi, Markku

Research Manager, PhD

Temmes, Markku

Research Director, professor

(1) Evaluation studies

The Department of Political Science has played an active role in the Evaluation Programme of the Finnish administrative reforms in 1994-1998. The Programme consisted of several sub-projects targeted to different aspects of reforms. The summarising and concluding report was published in 1997 (Temmes and Kiviniemi 1997). After that, a separate evaluation project on state employer and personnel policies was conducted (Temmes and al. 1998). These evaluation studies have been financed by the Finnish Ministry of Finance. In addition to these overall evaluations of administrative reforms, also specific evaluations of certain institutions of state (Geological Survey of Finland, Measurement Technology Centre) have been completed.

Publications

- Temmes, Markku (1994) Hallintouudistusten evaluaation haasteista (Challenges of Evaluation of Administrative Reforms), in Tutkimaton uudistus? Julkisen sektorin uudistukset tutkimushaasteena. Helsinki: Valtiovarainministeriö, 41-66.

- Temmes, Markku (1994) Hallinto puntarissa: hallintouudistusten arvioinnin mahdollisuudet ja edellytykset (Administration in Steelyard: Possibilities and Prerequisites of Evaluating Administrative Reforms). Helsinki: Valtiovarainministeriö, Helsingin yliopisto, yleisen valtio-opin laitos.

- Kiviniemi, Markku and al. (1994) Julkiset palvelut menevät markkinoille (Public Services Go on the Market). Helsinki: Valtionhallinnon kehittämiskeskus, Efektia Palvelu Oy. - English version (1995), Helsinki: Ministry of Finance.

- Temmes, Markku and Kiviniemi, Markku (1995) Muutoksen mahdollisuudet: arviointeja ja näkemyksiä julkisen sektorin ja hallinnon kehittämisestä 1990-luvulla (Possibilities for Change: Evaluations and Conceptions About the Development of the Public Sector and Administration in the 1990s). Helsinki: Valtiovarainministeriö, Helsingin yliopisto, yleisen valtio-opin laitos.

- Kiviniemi, Markku (1996) Poliittisten päätöksentekijöiden käsityksiä hallinnon uudistamisesta. Haastattelututkimuksen raportti (Conceptions of Political Decision-makers on Administrative Reforms. Report of an Interview Study). Helsingin yliopisto, yleisen valtio-opin laitos.

- Temmes, Markku and Kiviniemi, Markku (1997) Suomen hallinnon muuttuminen 1987-1995 (Changes in the Finnish Administration in 1987-1995). Helsinki: Valtiovarainministeriö, Helsingin yliopisto, yleisen valtio-opin laitos.

- Temmes, Markku (1998) Hallinnonuudistuksen arviointi - uusi työkalu vai instituutio (The Evaluation of Administrative Reforms - a New Tool or an Institution), Hallinnon tutkimus, 17:4, 316-323.

- Markku Temmes and al. (1998) Henkilöstöpolitiikan uusi tuleminen - valtion työnantaja- ja henkilöstöpolitiikan arviointihankkeen raportti (The New Coming of Personnel Policy - Report of the Evaluation Project of State Employer and Personnel Policy). Helsinki: Valtion työmarkkinalaitoksen julkaisu 10/98.

- Markku Temmes (1998) Evaluation as a Tool of the Reformers: Theories and Experiences, in John Halligan (ed) Public Service Reform. Centre of Research in Public Sector Management, International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration, University of Canberra, 81-97.

(2) Comparative studies

Comparative studies of the Department have so far concentrated on basic comparisons among European ministries and administrative sectors in the context of the European Union. A more general historical background analysing administrative traditions in Europe has been elaborated in Temmes (1994).

Publications (also by other researchers)

- Temmes, Markku (1994) Euroopan unionin vaikutukset Suomen hallintoon: askel tuntemattomaan vai tuttuun eurooppalaisuuteen (The Impacts of the European Union on the Finnish Administration: a Step Towards Strange or Well-known Europe), in Euroopan unioni ja julkinen hallinto: kokemuksia ja näkemyksiä Euroopan integraation vaikutuksista julkiseen hallintoon. Helsinki: Hallinnon kehittämiskeskus, Painatuskeskus, 95-116.

- Temmes, Markku (1994) Eurooppalaiset esikuvamme: uudistuvan hallintoajattelun lähteillä (Our European Models: on the Sources of Renewing Administrative Thinking). Helsinki: Valtionhallinnon kehittämiskeskus.

- Temmes, Markku (1995a) Suomi kansainvälisessä vertailussa. Friedrich Nascholdin raportti suomalaisesta hallinnon kehittämisestä (Finland in an International Comparison. Friedrich Naschold's Report about Finnish Administrative Development), Hallinnon tutkimus, 14, 72-75.

- Temmes, Markku (1995b) The EU and Finnish Administration, Hallinnon tutkimus 14, 258-263.

- Temmes, Markku (1995c) EU:n vaikutukset Suomen hallintoon (The Impacts of the European Union on the Finnish Administration), in EU ja kansallisvaltio: Suomen hallinto 2000-luvun haasteiden edessä. Helsinki: Painatuskeskus, 169-244.

- Temmes, Markku (1995d) Johdanto, yhteenveto (Introduction, Summary), in Eurooppalaiset hallinnot. Helsinki: Valtiovarainministeriö.

- Juvonen, Leena (1996) Eurooppalaiset valtiovarainministeriöt (European Ministries of Finance). Helsinki: Helsingin yliopisto, yleisen valtio-opin laitos.

- Temmes, Markku (1997) Eurooppalaiset ministeriöt: vertailevia näkökulmia (European Ministries: Comparative Aspects), in Hallinto ja kansanvalta: esseitä Voitto Helanderin 60-vuotispäivän kunniaksi. Turku: Turun yliopisto, 23-43.

- Juvonen, Leena (1997) Eurooppalaiset kauppa- ja teollisuusministeriöt (European Ministries of Trade and Industry). Helsinki: Edita Oy.

- Juvonen, Leena (1997) Eurooppalaiset sisäasiainministeriöt (European Ministries of Interior). Helsingin yliopisto, yleisen valtio-opin laitos.

- Alam, Manzoor (1998) Public Personnel Policy in Europe - A Comparative Analysis of Seven European Countries. Helsinki: Ministry of Finance.

(3) Studies on Public Sector Reform

Studies on public sector reform include analyses of reform doctrines, such as New Public Management. Some of the studies have been done in cooperation with a Working Group of the IASIA, led by John Halligan (University of Canberra).

Publications

- Temmes, Markku (1996) Hallintopolitiikan rakennedoktriinit (Structural Doctrines of Administrative Policies), Hallinnon tutkimus, 15, 90-109.

- Temmes, Markku (1997) Optimal Mix Between Managerism and the Legal-administrative Regulatory System - the Finnish Case of the Regulatory Systems, Hallinnon tutkimus, 16, 70-79.

- Temmes, Markku (1998) Finland and New Public Management, International Review of Administrative Sciences, 64, 441-456.

Kuusisto, Riikka

PhD student, Lic.Pol.Sc.

Western Foreign Policy Rhetoric in Action: The Statements of United States, British and French Leaders in the Persian Gulf and in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1994/1995-1999)

My Ph.D. project has been financed by the Academy of Finland (1 year) and by VAKAVA Graduate School in Political Science and International Relations (4 years). In 1997, I completed my Licentiate Degree, and in April 1999, I handed in the manuscript of my dissertation to the two preliminary examiners appointed by the Faculty Board. I expect to defend my thesis in the summer or early fall of 1999.

The main object of the research project has been to produce a good-quality doctoral dissertation. In the process, I have written seven articles and a monograph, presented a paper in four international conferences, acted as the co-editor-in-chief of a Finnish Peace Research journal, Kosmopolis, and given lectures and seminar courses at the Department of Political Science. Both the teaching and the work related to the journal have contributed to the finishing of the thesis: they have made it possible to test ideas on a critical public and to study scientific writing styles.

The research questions focus on the rhetorical construction of Western foreign policy: more specifically, on the names, definitions and explanations given to the conflicts in the Persian Gulf and in Bosnia-Herzegovina by the leaders of the United States, Great Britain and France. The aim is to analyze the argumentative strategies, enemy images, demarcations of space and metaphors of war of the major Western powers: to examine how the participation in one violent struggle became to be understood as "a just war for a new world order" and how another international crisis situation was successfully depicted as "a cruel and meaningless slaughter outside forces should not interfere in".

Main publications related to the project

-Kuusisto, Riikka: Oikeutettu sota ja hullu tappaja. Persianlahden sota läntisten suurvaltajohtajien retoriikassa.// Kosmopolis 25 (1995): 2 pp. 19-35

-Kuusisto, Riikka: Sodan retoriikasta. Persianlahden ja Bosnian konfliktit läntisten suurvaltajohtajien lausunnoissa.// Pelkkää retoriikkaa. Tutkimuksen ja politiikan retoriikat. (ed. Hilkka Summa & Kari Palonen) - Tampere: Vastapaino, 1996 pp. 267-291

-Kuusisto, Riikka: Murhenäytelmästä suonsilmäkkeeseen - Bosnian sodan läntiset metaforat.// Kosmopolis 27 (1997): 3 pp. 41-52

-Kuusisto, Riikka: Framing the Wars in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Definitions of the Western Power Leaders in Action.// Journal of Peace Research 35 (1998): 5, pp. 603-620
-Kuusisto, Riikka: Oikeutettu sota ja julma teurastus? Läntisten suurvaltajohtajien sotaretoriikkaa Persianlahdella ja Bosniassa. - Helsinki: Suomen rauhantutkimusyhdistys, Suomen Rauhanpuolustajat ja Like, 1998 - 163 pp. (Rauhantutkimus tänään; XV)

-Kuusisto, Riikka: The Fairy Tale and the Tragedy? The Western Metaphors of War in the Persian Gulf and in Bosnia.// Argument in a Time of Change. Definitions, Frameworks, and Critiques. (ed. James F. Klumpp) - Annandale: NCA/AFA, 1998 pp. 297-303 (Proceedings of the Tenth NCA/AFA Conference on Argumentation)

[-Kuusisto, Riikka: Humanitaariset pommitukset? Läntistä sotaretoriikkaa Kosovossa.// Ulkopolitiikka-lehden erikoisnumero (1999)]

[-Kuusisto, Riikka: Poliittinen tarinankerronta ja sodan retoriikka.// Kadonnutta poliittista etsimässä. (ed. Jouko Huru ja Tarja Väyrynen) - Helsinki: Helsinki University Press

Laakso, Liisa

Acting senior assistant, Lic.Pol.Sc.

(1) Elections in Africa. (Academy of Finland) The purpose of the research is to investigate the relationship between democratisation and the question of electoral competition in the light of the debate about `a western concept of democracy' and its suitability for `African cultures'. The project provides the most comprehensive coverage of electoral processes in Sub-Saharan Africa. No other study has aspired to cover the range of countries included in this project. Research group: Anthony Kwesi Aubyn (University of Ghana), Atta El-Battahani (University of Khartoum), Harri Englund (University of Helsinki), Jeremy Gould (University of Helsinki), Michael Neocosmos (National University of Lesotho), Karuti Kanyinga (University of Nairobi), Sanna Ojalammi (University of Helsinki), Adebayo Olukoshi (Nordiska Afrikainstitutet), Eva Poluha (University of Stockholm), Lars Rudebeck (University of Uppsala), Iina Soiri (University of Helsinki). Michael Cowen and Liisa Laakso are responsible for the co-ordination. Multiparty Elections in Africa (Forthcoming in 2000, James Currey).

(2) State formation and Elections in Zimbabwe 1995-1999. (University of Helsinki) Ph.D. thesis submitted to the faculty in May 1999. This study aims to clarify the institutionalisation of liberal democracy, not by defining and analysing its success and failures but by recognising the complex process of the state constitution behind it. This will be done through a detailed analysis of the electoral processes in one country, Zimbabwe, which has had an uninterrupted continuity of multi-partyism since 1980.

(3) The Political and Social Context of Structural Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa. (Nordic Africa Institute) The second phase was launched in October 1994 under the co-ordinatorship of Adebayo Olukoshi. The main thrust of the programme is the study of the socio-economic and political consequences of structural adjustment implementation by African countries. Empirical work, is being carried out by network of mainly African scholars. I have participated three projects: Challenges to the Nation state in Africa,Citizenship Rights and Economic Crisis in Africa (L.Laakso: Global citizenship, forthcoming) and Youth and Urban Popular Culture in a Period of Economic Decline and Structural Adjustment" (L.Laakso, K.Kanyiga: Youth in the Elections in Kenya 1997, forthcoming).

(4) Can Democracy be Exported? Research project co-ordinated by Peter Schraeder Loyola University. Covers different actors from IFIs to foreign governments and NGOs and different issue areas like civil society, human rights. I have participated with a case study of the Nordic policy. The whole collections should be published soon (probabaly by Westview press or Cambridge).

Main publications related to the projects

- "Changing Notions of the Nation-State and the African Experiences: Montesquieu revisited" in Adebayo Olukoshi & L.Laakso (ed.) Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Uppsala & Institute of Development Studies, Helsinki, 1996, 40-49.

- "Nordic Development Cooperation and Promotion of Democracy: In Search for Strategies", Working Paper 7/1996, IDS, University of Helsinki, 32 p.

- "Demokratisoitumisen haaste Afrikassa", ("The Challenge of Democratization in Africa") Terra.109:3, 1997, 151 - 154.

- "Why are Elections not Democratic in Africa? Comparisons between the recent multi-party elections in Zimbabwe and Tanzania", Nordic Journal of African Studies 6(1),1997, 18-35.

- "Afrikka ja politiikan kriisi" ("Africa and the Crisis of Politics"). Kosmopolis 27(1),1997, 5-22.

- M.Cowen and L.Laakso: "An Overview of Election Studies in Africa", Working Paper 1/1997, IDS, University of Helsinki, 59 p.

- L.Laakso, Iina Soiri and Zenebework Tadesse with Konjit Fekade: In Search of Democratic Opposition: Constraints and Possibiklities for Donors' Support in Namibia nad Ethiopia, 1998, The Research Institute of the Swedish School of Social Science, University of Helsinki, 70 p. + appendix.

- "Relationship Between the State and Civil Society in the Zimbabwean Elections 1995", Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 3, 1996, 218-234.

- "Elections with History, Approaching Constitutional Development, Party-System and Electoral Competititon in Zimbabwe", Working Paper 3/1997, IDS, University of Helsinki, 20 p.

- "Taloudellisen ehdollistamisen ja demokratisoitumisen vaikea yhtälö Zimbabwessa" ("The difficult combination of economic conditionality and democratization in Zimbabawe") in Nina Seppalä (toim.) Ääni käheänä: Voiko demokratisoitumista ja osallistumista tukea?, Rauhan- ja konfliktintutkimuskeskus, tutkimuksia No. 79, 1998, 31 - 55.

Mykkänen Juri

Assistant, PhD

(1)Professions, Professional Knowledge and the Finnish Public Sector. This project looked at the role of professions in the state government of Finland. Historically Finland belongs to the continental tradition of strong and centralized state which has long served as a major employer of highly trained specialists and been a regulator of the markets of specialized knowledge as well. In the 1960s and 1970s the lawyer as the expert of government was gradually replaced by the social scientist. Also, roughly an equal transformation took place in the sphere of representative politics, although lawyers have always found more lucrative employment in government bureaucracies and the judiciary than party politics. One of the objectives was to challenge the received notion of the government dominated by lawyers as governmental work has become too specialized and diversified for any professional group to rise above others. Other participants: Ilpo Koskinen, PhD, Department of Industrial Design, University of Art and Design, Helsinki; Niilo Kauppi, PhD, The Academy of Finland.

Publications related to the project:

- Mykkänen, Juri ja Ilpo Koskinen. 1995. Eurooppaoikeudellisen kirjoittelun ajoittumisesta ja sosiaalisesta

rakenteesta [The Social Structure of Community Law Publishing]. Oikeus 24(3):288-294.

- Koskinen, Ilpo, Juri Mykkänen ja Niilo Kauppi. 1997. Professionaalinen dominanssi? Juristit ja valtiovalta

Suomessa [Professional Dominance? Lawyers and the State in Finland]. Politiikka 39(2):108-131.

- Mykkänen, Juri ja Ilpo Koskinen (toim.). 1998. Asiantuntemuksen politiikka: Professiot ja julkisvalta Suomessa. [The Politics of Expertise: Professions and the State in Finland]. Helsinki: Yliopistopaino.

(2) Economic Rhetoric in Financial Policy-making. This main interest of this project was twofold: First, to explore possibilities of computer-assisted analysis of textual materials and, second, to produce a series of analyses of economic discourse in the field of public policy-making. As to the first objective, computer-assisted analysis provided a "public sphere" for the research group to interact and develop ideas rather than a direct means to theoretical innovations. As a "technical" aid the computer program worked well. The second objective was closer to the group's expectations. Among the substantial results was the discovery of a very enduring core of macro economic discourse that has begun to change only in the 1990s with the rise of psychological vocabularies describing "expectations" of market actors. The group also addressed economic forecasting as ritual and the self-reflective character of state economic planning. Other participants: Visa Heinonen, PhD, The Research Center for Consumer Research, Helsinki, Mika Pantzar, PhD, The School of Economics, Helsinki, Seppo Roponen, MA, information systems consultant, Helsinki.

Publications related to the project:

- Heinonen, Visa, Juri Mykkänen, Mika Pantzar ja Seppo Roponen. 1996. Suomalaisen talouspolitiikan ajattelumallit: Valtiovarainministereiden budjettiesitelmät 1974-1994 [The Thought Patterns of Finnish Economic Policy]. Helsinki: Kuluttajatutkimuskeskus.

- Heinonen, Visa, Mika Pantzar ja Juri Mykkänen. 1997a. Suljettu sektori syö avoimen sektorin kakkua - tuottavan ja tuottamattoman sektorin dualismi valtiovarainministereiden budjettiesitelmissä 1974-1994 [The Dualism of Productive and Unproductive Sectors in the Budget Speeches 1974-1994]. Janus 5(1):26-47.

- Heinonen, Visa, Juri Mykkänen ja Mika Pantzar. 1997b. Talouspolitiikan suomalainen malli Valtiovarainministereiden budjettiesitelmissä [The "Finnish Model" of Economic Policy in Budget Speeches]. Talous ja yhteiskunta 25(1): 77-93.

- Heinonen, Visa, Juri Mykkänen, Mika Pantzar ja Seppo Roponen. 1997c. Voiko valtiovarainministerin korvata koneella? Tekstianalyyttinen tutkimus valtiovarainministereiden budjettiesitelmistä 1974-1994 [On the Possibility of Substituting a Machine for the Secretary of Finance: Textual Analysis of Budget Speeches]. Kansantaloudellinen aikakauskirja. 93(1):32-47.

- Mykkänen, Juri. 1997d. Sovelletun taloustieteen retoriikkaa: Suomalainen talouspolitiikka taloustieteen sovellutuksena [The Rhetoric of Applied Economics: The Finnish Economic Policy]. Teoksessa Matti Mälkiä ja Jari Stenvall (toim.), Kielen vallassa: Näkökulmia politiikan, uskonnon ja julkishallinnon kieleen. Tampere: Tampere University Press.

- Mykkänen, Juri. 1999 (ilmestyy). Asiantuntija-ajattelu ja asenteiden jyrkkyys poliittisessa päätöksenteossa [Expert Thinking and Extremity of Attitudes in Political Decision Making]. Teoksessa Mikko Mattila ja Petri Uusikylä (toim.), Verkostot politiikassa. Helsinki: Gaudeamus.

(3) Group Cohesion in a Parliamentary Group (ongoing research). This is an ongoing research project that purports to account for the phenomenon of group cohesion in parliamentary politics through ethnographic description. The data will be collected by directly observing the internal meetings of a large parliamentary group for one year's period and interviewing the group members. Much of the work will be exploratory as there are very few previous examples of this type of research in elite political settings. The study is based on the claim that the outputs of legislative work (e.g., roll call votes) are largely secondary indicators of legislative behavior that are easily coded by the analyst but that are equally misleading in terms of the interaction mechanisms and interpretative work that predate the outputs. Currently the work is taking more shape and focuses on the question of maintaining division of labor through intricate interpretive practices, such as establishing the limits of mutual trust and raising the level of abstraction in close boundary situations.

Publications: To be expected as of March, 2000.

Ojakangas, Mika

Researcher, PhD

1994-1997 Researcher and PhD student at the department of political science, financed by the Cultural Foundation of Finland, and Finnish Graduate School of Political Science. 1998 Visiting fellow and post-doctorate student at the University of Genoa in Italy, financed by the Finnish Academy, invited by Alessandro Dal Lago, professor of sociology.

(1) A genealogy of the pedagogical power in Finland 1860-1960

(2) Gilles Deleuze's philosophy, Carl Schmitt's political thinking.

(3) Michel Foucault's genealogical approach

(4) Displacement of Politics, 1999-2001

The project is financed by the Finnish Academy and lead by professor Sakari Hänninen from the Universtiy of Jyväskylä. Other members of the project: Jussi Vähämäki (University of Tampere); Markku Koivusalo (University of Helsinki); Olivia Quaraldo (University of Verona). Persons and instances of co-operation: Tuija Parvikko (University of Jyväskylä); Alessandro Dal Lago (University of Genoa); Nikolas Rose (London University) among others. - Seminars and conferences to be arranged by the project: New Forms of Citizenship 24-28.6.1999 Santa Margerita Italy; Presentation and Representation-seminar in Jyväskylä July 1999; Art and Politics-conference in Verona, Spring 2000; Bio-politics-conference in Helsinki/London Autumn 2000.

Main publications related to the projects

- "Beyond the good and evil, a case of adolescent psychiatry". Together with Ilpo Helénin. Young 2/1994.

- "Postmoderni tappaja." Together with Markku Koivusalo Kosmopolis 1/1994. (Postmodern Killer.)

- "Ethos ja politiikka." Politiikka 3/1994. (Ethos and Politics.)

- "Mentaalihygienia ja lapsuuden poliittinen historia." In Timo Joutsivuo ja Heikki Mikkeli (eds.), Terveyden lähteillä. Länsimaisten terveyskäsitysten kulttuurihistoriaa. SHS, Helsinki 1995. (Mental Hygiene and the Political History of Childhood.)

- "Carl Schmitt ja moderni sota." Kosmopolis 4/1995. (Carl Schmitt and The Modern War.)

- "Gilles Deleuze. Katsaus tuotantoon." Together with Turo-Kimmo Lehtonen and Markku Koivusalo. Tiede ja Edistys 2/1996. (Gilles Deleuze. A View on His Work.)

- "Deleuzen filosofia: taistelu transsendessia vastaan." Tiede ja Edistys 2/1996. (Deleuze's Philosophy. A Struggle Against Transcendence.)

- Lapsuus ja auktoriteetti. Pedagogisen vallan historia Snellmanista Koskenniemeen. Tutkijaliitto 1997. (Infancy and Authority. A History of pedagogical power from Snellman to Koskenniemi.)

- "Ethics of Singularity." In Clare O'Farrel (ed.), Foucault: The Legacy. Queensland University of Technology Publications 1997.

- "Sota poliittisen ehtona. Carl Schmittin pluriversum." Kosmopolis 2/1997. (War as the Condition of the Political. Carl Schmitt's pluriversum.)

- "Carl Schmitt poliittisena ajattelijana." Together with Markku Koivusalo. Preface to Carl Schmitt, Poliittinen teologia. Tutkijaliitto 1997. (Carl Schmitt as a Political Thinker.)
- "Michel Foucault'n Nietzsche." Preface to Michel Foucault, Foucault/Nietzsche. Tutkijaliitto 1998. (Foucault's Nietzsche.)

- "Suvereeni ja rahvas. Carl Schmitt kohtaa Michel Foucault'n." In Palonen et al. (eds.) Politiikka pois paikoiltaan. Sophi 1998. (Sovereign and Blebs. Carl Schmitt meets Michel Foucault.)

- "Liberalismi, demokratia ja totaalinen valtio. Carl Schmitt identiteetin ja representaation välissä." Tiede & Edistys 2/1999. (Liberalism, Democracy and The Total State. Carl Schmitt Between Identity and Representation.) - forthcoming

- "Real as Exception. On Carl Schmitt's Logic of Political Thought." Sakari Hänninen (ed.): Displacement of Politics. Sophi-publications 1999 - forthcoming

- Konkreettisen elämän filosofia. Carl Schmitt ja poliittinen teoria. Tutkijaliitto 1999. (A Philosophy of Concrete Life. Carl Schmitt and Political Theory.) - forthcoming

Paakkunainen Kari

Researcher, Lic.Pol.Sc.

(1) Citizen's Identity and Regionality in the Rhetoric of Youth Living by Baltic Sea

Research project (1998-) - sponsored by Education Ministry and Youth Research Network - conciders and talks over young people as the political citizens in Esthonia, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden and Finland. The basic point of view is their identity and the rhetoric, by which they construct their meaningful everyday life, space and world view. New regionality, partnership and network will construct the bridge into the "village of the world" - into the global, but in the same time, into the local and individual responsibility and citizenship (e.g. egology, religion, feminism, civic networking via modern technology). On the other hand, many cultural and political regressions and marginalisations have taken place in the area and the participation in democracy (e.g. elections and party membership) is experienced cynically or loosely in the Western and eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, As young people themselves put it, "the systems are stopped up" or "politics is dishonest, monastic latin with empty promises and dirty game".

Together with these tendencies regions, territories and political 'spaces' are transforming, becoming problematized and conflicting in the dynamic ways. With their competences young people are themselves able to define their cultures, 'places' and action fields; they are able to grow up as new political subjects). Research problem of this research scheme is regional and civic identities by the Baltic Sea: Is this area uniting or disintegrating? Which kind of conflicting identities could we find in the Baltic Sea region - will we face a "new regionality or territoriality" after the traditional nation states? What kind of coherence could we find in the rhetoric, identity politics, the images of enemies or opponents or in the polarizing tendencies?

(2) From the Admiration of Prosperous Germany to European Partnership: German Youth Policy - a Model for us?

The research project (1995-98) - sponsored by the Education Mninistry and Youth Research Network - has analyzed and evaluated the German youth policy in the context of European integration and the limits of Welfare states. In the spirit of risk society's theory (Beck) the informal and politicking youth networks and models of companionship have an active role in cosideration These sub-political and playing networks are active in the contingent world without national boarders.

(3) Political Participation of Youth - A Remedy against Marginalisation and Social Exclusion.

The Finnish contribution in this EU-sponsored (Directorate-General XXII; EII) project (1997-99) is the national report of the above mentioned theme. The head of the project is professor Helmut Wintersberger (Austria) and prof. Giovanni Sgritta is writing the report concerning Italy. The focus of the work is to analyze with survey data common in these three countries the political cultures of (early) young people and their (post)modern social initiatives (associations, networks and informal groups): What could be their influence and relevance among marginalised youth and children?

Main Publications related to the projects

- National Report of Finland: Political participation of Youth - A Remedy against Marginalization? National Report 1998 (88 pages) for EU, DG XXII.

- Kama-Saksan ihailusta kumppanuuteen - Onko saksalaisesta nuorisopolitiikasta meille malliksi?From the Admiration of Prosperous Germany to European Partnership: German Youth Policy - a Model for us? - Nuorisotutkimus 2000: 7/1998. Helsinki: Hakapaino Oy.

- Commodification and Professionalization of Youth Policy - In Helve, Helena (1988) Unification and Marginalization of Young People. Helsinki: Hakapaino.

- Political Scepticism and Political Groupings among unemployed Youth: A Finnish-German Comparison. - (Ed.) Helve, Helena - Bynner, John: Youth and Life Management. Research Perspectives.Helsinki: Helsinki University Press. 1996.

Raunio, Tapio

Researcher, PhD

(1)Party Groups in the European Parliament

The project analysed the behaviour of individual members and political groups in the 1989-94 European Parliament. The empirical data set consisted of roll call votes and parliamentary questions. The project resulted in the author's doctoral thesis (published in 1996) and in several articles and chapters in edited volumes.

(2)National Legislatures in the European Union

The deepening of integration has affected parliamentary democracy in the EU Member States. This comparative project investigated the organisational adaptation of national legislatures to the European Union, and analysed the main problems facing the parliaments. The project produced several articles and book chapters on the adaptation of Finnish, Nordic, and the fifteen Member State legislatures to the integration process.

(3) Legislatures and Parties in Federal Systems

The project analyses the institutional and behavioural aspects of legislatures and parties in federal systems. The research is comparative, with focus on the interaction between cleavages and institutions. Particularly important are linkages between the central (federal) and state level. The author is currently writing a monograph on comparing federal systems.

(1) MEP Behaviour

The project analyses the behaviour of individual representatives and party groups in the Parliament. The research is carried out in connection with the European Parliament Research Group (EPRG), a transatlantic research group led by Dr Simon Hix (LSE). The period under analysis is the 1999-2004 Parliament. The research is empirical, with extensive interviews complementing the dataset. We are particularly interested in the role of national factors (candidate selection, party system, constituency characteristics etc.) in explaining MEP behaviour. The project will result in an edited volume and a number of articles in leading political science journals.

(2) Partisan Responses to Europe

The project examines what impact European integration has had on the ideology and organisation of national parties, and how parties can use the European Union to achieve their goals (opportunity structure). The research population covers all fifteen Member States and all party families. The project will produce a volume co-edited with Dr Robert Ladrech (Keele).

Main publications related to the projects

- Raunio, Tapio (1996): Parliamentary Questions in the European Parliament: Representation, Information, and Control. The Journal of Legislative Studies 2:4, pp. 356-382.

- Raunio, Tapio (1997): The European Perspective: Transnational Party Groups in the 1989-94 European Parliament. Ashgate, Aldershot.

- Raunio, Tapio (1999): Facing the European Challenge: Finnish Parties Adjust to the Integration Process. West European Politics 22:1, pp. 138-159.

- Raunio, Tapio (1999): Always One Step Behind? National Legislatures and the European Union. Government and Opposition 34:1, pp. 1-23.

Tiilikainen, Teija

Researcher, Co-ordinator of EU-programme, PhD

1. A Citizens' Europe 1993-1995

A research project mainly financed by the Finnish Academy and dealing with the citizen dimension of European integration; led by professors Esko Antola (University of Turku) and Allan Rosas (Åbo Akademi); two researchers: Erik Lundberg & Teija Tiilikainen

The main publications related to this project:

- Antola & Rosas: A Citizens' Europe, Towards a New World Order, London:Sage, 1995. Including an article by Tiilikainen, Teija 'The Problem of Democracy in the EU'.

- Tiilikainen, Teija (ed): Kansalaisten Eurooppa (A Citizens' Europe), The Institute for Human Rights, Åbo Akademi, 1994.

- Tiilikainen, Teija (1995): Towards the IGC 1996: The Common Foreign and Security Policy of the EU, Helsinki:The Finnish Institute of International Affairs, 1995.

- Tiilikainen, Teija (1998): Europe and Finland; Defining the Political Identity of Finland in Western Europe, London:Ashgate.

- O'Leary, Siofra & Tiilikainen, Teija (eds): Citizenship and Nationality in the New Europe, London:Sweet & Maxwell, 1998.

(2) The Nordic Unity in the Post-Cold-War European Politics

The project is related to a number of Nordic research projects. Main publications:

--Tiilikainen,Teija 'Det finländska folket inför det historiska beslutet' in Bingen & Lindahl (eds): Nordiske skjebnevalg, Oslo: Europaprogrammet, 1994.

- Tiilikainen, Teija 'Finland and the EU' in Miles (ed): The EU and the Nordic Countries, London: Routledge, 1996.

- Tiilikainen, Teija ' What is the Future of the Nordic Identity' in Kervinen, Korhonen & Virtanen (eds): Identities in Transition, University of Turku, 1996.

- Tiilikainen, Teija 'A Nordic Unity in European Security Politics' in Irish Studies in International Affairs, 1998.

Tiilikainen, Teija: Åland i Europas säkerhetspolitiska omvälvning, Mariehamn: Ålands fredsinstitut, 1999.

- Tiilikainen, Teija 'Finland och Sverige - skillnader och likheter i sätten att förstå världen efter II vk' in Suominen (ed): Det hotade landet och det skyddade, Stockholm:Atlantis, 1998.
- Artéus, Tiilikainen & Vaahtoranta (eds.): Comparing Finnish and Swedish Security Policies, Stockholm: Försvarshögskolan, 1999 (forthcoming)

- Tiilikainen, Teija ' Finland and the EU' in Artéus, Tiilikainen & Vaahtoranta.

(3) Finland in the European Union

The project is related to a number of European research projects. Main publications:

- Tiilikainen, Teija 'The Finnish Neutrality - its New Forms and Future' in Goetschel (ed): Small States inside and outside the EU, The Hague: Kluwer, 1998.

- Tiilikainen,Teija 'The Problem of Democracy in the EU' in The Nordic Dimensions, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs, 1998.

- Tiilikainen, Teija 'Finland' in Wessels & Maurer & Mittag (eds): Fifteen into One ? The European Union and its Member States, Manchester University Press, 1999 (forthcoming)

(4) The Finnish EU Presidency

The project is financed by the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ministry of Finance and the University of Helsinki. It deals dealing with the Finnish Presidency from the leadership point of view; led by professor Tuomo Martikainen (University of Helsinki), T Tiilikainen as the other responsible; three other researchers involved; the main publication planned: Guiding the EU to a New Millinneum (international publisher) 2000.

Vogt, Henri

PhD student

1995-1998 member of the Finnish graduate school for political science VAKAVA; from 1999 funded by the Finnish Cultural Foundation and Kone Foundation

Between Utopia and Disillusionment. An Interpretation of Post-communist Politics Based on Studies in the Czech Republic, Estonia, and Eastern Germany

The main project from February 1995 onwards (to be completed as a doctoral thesis in 1999). The thesis seeks to analyse Eastern European change from the point of view of people's future expectations at the time of the collapse of communism and their fulfilment since then. This perspective - somewhat provocatively named as "utopia" - is one that has been gravely overlooked in most analyses of post-communism. The following themes will be touched upon: revolution as such as a utopia; ambivalence - between the new and the old; disillusionment and alienation - utopia not fulfilled; nation and Europe as a simultaneous utopia; individualism as a utopia. The final question will be whether politics can fulfil any utopian aspirations after the end of all-encompassing political projects. The basic methological tool is that of theme interviews.
A published article directly connected to this project: Utopia, vieraantuminen ja vuoden 1989 muutos (Utopia, Alienation and the Change of 1989). Politiikka 4/1997. (In addition to this, a number of unpublished conference papers and published shorter articles/ book reviews.)

Other publications/ projects

- Mikko Lagerspetz and Henri Vogt (1998): Estonia. In Berglund Sten, Hellén Tomas and Aarebrot Frank (eds.): The Handbook of Political Change in Eastern Europe. Cheltenham UK & Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar 1998. This Handbook project was intially led by professors Sten Berglund and Jan Åke Dellenbrandt and coordinated as an ECPR working group. The topic of the book is cleavages in East European transitional societies (p. 1).

- "Challenges to Democracy" (working title). A book co-authored by Sten Berglund (Örebro), Frank Aarebrot (Bergen), Georgi Karasimeonov (Sofia) and Henri Vogt. To be published by Edward Elgar in year 2000. The book seeks to analyse problems of democratic consolidation in Eastern Europe from the perspectives of party fragmentation, human rights, voluntary association, nationalism and ethnicity.

- Tuomas Forsberg and Henri Vogt (eds.): Northern Dimensions 1999. The Yearbook of the Finnish Institute of International Affairs. Helsinki 1999.

Other relevant information

- Also enrolled as a doctoral student at St Antony's College, University of Oxford, where in permanent residence from October 1996 until July 1998.

- Field research in Berlin, November 1995 - June 1996; in Tartu, August - October 1997; and Prague, January and February 1998.